A
Abo Flintknapping - Also: Aboriginal Material Flintknapping. An interpretation of flintknapping performed with materials found in nature and without the aid of metals.
Abrader - Also: Abrading Stone, Grindstone, Grinding Stone. An abrasive object that is rubbed against the surface or edge of a core to create a dull, rounded, and/or polished area.
Abraded Arris - An arris that has been rubbed by an abrader to reduce its height, sharpness, or irregular contours.
Abraded Edge - An edge that is dulled, rounded, and/or polished by rubbing an abrader along the edge in a longitudinal direction. If the abrader is rubbed across the edge, in a lateral direction, it is called a sheared edge. Edges can be both abraded and sheared.
Abraded Platform - A platform created, or enhanced, by rubbing an abrader along the edge in a longitudinal direction. If the abrader is rubbed across the edge, in a lateral direction, it is called a sheared platform. Platforms can be both abraded and sheared.
Abraded Surface - The surface of a stone tool that has been made flatter, smoother, or polished by the action of an abrader. Sometimes performed to eliminate knapping errors such as step fractures. May also be a diagnostic feature on some stone tools.
Abrasion - Also: Abrading, Grinding. The wear caused by the act of using an abrader. In geology: the mechanical scraping of a rock surface by friction between rocks and moving particles during their transport by wind, glacier, waves, gravity, running water or erosion.
Absolute Age - The amount of time elapsed according to a specific time reference, such as before present (BP), since an object was made or used.
Absolute Dating - Age according to a specific time reference, such as before present (BP), based on measurable physical qualities or historical record.
Aceramic - An ancient society that did not make, posses, or use, pottery.
Accidental Flaking - Flaking that has yielded an undesired result that is usually not beneficial. Also, the flake scar may or may not show evidence that the flake was removed accidentally or in an unintended manner. Artifacts that contain accidental flaking may represent either lack or skill and/or intentional lack of repair flaking.
Activity - The use or purpose of a stone tool.
Activity Analysis - Also: Function Analysis. The investigation into the function and purpose of a stone tool. Clues are gained from use-wear analysis, experimental archaeology, placement within a stone tool assemblage, residue analysis on the tool itself, and from associated faunal remains that show evidence of stone tool marks. This study is important to understanding the material culture of the people who used the tool.
Activity Area - A small area containing artifacts, within a single level or strata on a single site, indicating that a specific human activity took place. This is the smallest type of artifact grouping.
Acute - Severe, short angle(s) coming to a sharp point.
Adze - A cutting or chopping stone tool, similar to an axe, in which the stone blade is set at right angles to the handle. The stone blade is also usually beveled on the working end.
Agate - A microcrystalline variety of silica. It is formed when minerals, in the presence of water, seep into and then crystalize within the voids of buried material. Although chemically the same, the crystal structure of agate is different from flint or quartz, for example.
Agatized Coral - Over time, water and minerals fill the voids in buried coral but do not completely replace all the material. Crystals form, from the minerals, and eventually the voids becomes a solid mass of cryptocrystalline rock that looks similar to the original coral.
Agatized Wood - Over time, water and minerals fill the voids in buried wood but do not completely replace all the material. Crystals form, from the minerals, and eventually the voids becomes a solid mass of cryptocrystalline rock that looks similar to the original wood.
Aggregate - An assemblage of debitage. This can also mean inert components (filler or temper) mixed into clay or ceramic.
Aggressive Pressure - Applying excessive pressure to a core in a quick, loosely controlled manner to vigorously detach a flake or a series of flakes in a relatively short time. This also applies to a slow building of pressure that is followed by a very quick buildup of excessive pressure, or a sudden change of the axis of applied force, to detach a flake.
Alluvial Deposit - Also Alluvium. Loose material, such as soil and sediments, deposited or cemented into a solid mass that becomes rock at temperatures less than required for the melting of the rock.
Alternate Flaking Technique - Also: Alternate Retouch, Zig-Zag Flaking. Sequential flaking that uses the previous negative bulb of force as a platform for the next flake removal. Flipping the core over after each flake removal is usually required. Not to be confused with alternate beveling, which is sometimes, confusingly, called alternate flaking.
Alternate Beveling - Steep flaking on opposite sides of opposing edges.
Aluminum Bopper - A billet made from solid aluminum. Softer and lighter than copper but heavier and longer lasting than antler.
Amentum - A strap used to aid in throwing a javelin, harpoon, or spear.
Amerindian - Short for American Indian.
Amorphous - Also: Amorphous Solid. Synonymous with glass in older texts. Technically, amorphous means a disorderly internal structure. Amorphous solids are brittle and will fracture like glass.
Amputated - Also: Truncated. Made shorter by fracturing off one or both ends of a core or blade. May or may not be intentional.
Angle of Applied Force - Also: Angle of Force, Angle of Applied Load, Angle of Blow, Impact Angle, Strike Angle, Pressure Angle, Percussion Angle. The angle at which force is being applied, by a lithic reduction tool, in relation to the surface of the platform. In other words, the angle formed between the axis of applied force and the platform surface. Since platforms are rarely perfectly flat, this angle may be difficult to determine with exact precision. To compound the difficulty, this angle may change slightly before the detachment of a flake, especially during pressure flaking.
Angular Nodule - A natural stone with a blocky or multifaceted appearance.
Anterior - Also: Distal. One a flake: the end opposite the end containing the bulb of force. On a stone tool: the stabbing end.
Anthropogenic - Created by human hands.
Antler - A branching bony appendage on the head of males of most deer species. May also be present on females of some species. Because of its hardness and toughness, antler is often used for lithic reduction tools (instruments).
Antler Sleeve - A section of antler that is hollowed on one end to hold a stone axe head. Usually, the sleeve is securely attached to a handle.
Anvil - Also: Counterstriker, Static Hammer. An object of stone, bone, antler, or ivory, on which cores are placed to be broken, split, or fractured. Anvils are either formed into a specific shape or carefully chosen for their shape and are stationary (placed on the ground, for example).
Anvil Reduction Strategy - Also: Anvil Technique. A percussion technique that involves placing the core on an anvil and then striking the core with a percussor to produce flakes with the fractures originating from a natural or prepared platform. The process can also be reversed, with the anvil used to detach flakes, if the core is struck with a soft percussor while the platform is in contact with the anvil. Normally performed on thick cores, this technique can also be used on thin cores or flakes. This technique is generally a more refined version of a block reduction strategy.
Applied Force - Also: Applied Load, Applied Tension Stress, Applied Shear Stress, Energy. The force intended or required to cause the fracturing of a core.
Applied Heat Alteration - Also: Cooking, Heat Treating, Thermal Alteration, Thermal Treatment. The intentional application of heat to a stone to make it more easily knapped or fractured. The range of temperatures is usually between 300°F to 600°F. Various stones respond to various temperatures. In ancient times, the stone was buried under a layer of dirt, ash, and/or sand with a fire built on top to provide the heat in a relatively slow heating and cooling cycle. The stone is worked after it has cooled down to room temperature. Today, the stone is often heated in ovens or kilns.
Arch Blade - Also: Crescent, Crescent Knife. A flintknapped stone tool that looks like a crescent or half-moon. May be single or double edged. Not to be confused with a curved blade or bending flake.
Arch of Force - An arch-shaped crack at the beginning of a conchoidal fracture that opens at the juncture of the platform and the core. This crack is the initial stage of a conchoidal fracture and is caused by tension failure. An arch of force is what is usually seen during lithic reduction rather than a full cone of force or Hertzian cone.
Arched Flake - Also: Meniscus. A flake, with a diffuse bulb of force, that is convex on one side and concave on the other when viewed from the end. Not to be confused with an arch blade, bending flake, or curved flake.
Archaeological Culture - A distinct group of artifacts and structures, along with the technology that created them, that may or may not be linked to a specific group of people.
Archaeological Record - The body of physical evidence about human activity in the past. It consists of material culture(s) including artifacts, built structures, human affects on the environment, refuse, stratigraphy, mortuary practices, plant remains, and animal remains.
Archaeological Method - Ideally, a scientific process that includes the following steps: (1) A clear objective is agreed upon, (2) Potential sites are surveyed, (3) Excavation takes place, if necessary, (4) Specimens, artifacts, and data are collected, studied, evaluated, and stored, (5) A summary statement is written that includes whether or not the original objective was reached, and, finally, (6) All procedures, data, photographs, drawings, and written observations are published for review.
Archaic - Also: Archaic Stage, Meso-Indian Period. In the Americas, this was the second period of human occupation from around 8000 to 2000 BC with its ending roughly defined by the adoption of sedentary farming.
Arris - Also: Ridge, Scar Ridge, Crest. The raised area on the surface of a core that exists between flake scars.
Arrowhead - Also: Bird point. Specifically, a flintknapped stone tool that is hafted to the tip of an arrow that is fired from a bow. Unfortunately, the term has also been used to identify all manner of stone tools with a pointed end, regardless of their use. True arrowheads are sometimes called bird points either because they have been misunderstood as being used to kill birds or to distinguish these points from other stone tools.
Artifact - Also: Lithic Artifact, Relic. In the Americas, a flintknapped object made by an aboriginal inhabitant before the arrival, or influence, of Europeans starting from the year 1492.
Artifact Processing - Also: Curation Guidelines. The steps taken to ensure that an artifact is preserved for future study. It includes, but is not limited to, cleaning, labeling, transporting, storing, documenting the artifact’s morphology, establishing ownership, and recording the exact location where it was found.
Artificial Patina - A chemical treatment that is applied to a flintknapped object with the intent of making the object look older than it really is.
Attribute - A distinct characteristic of an artifact that cannot be broken down or subdivided.
Assemblage - A number of contemporary stone tools and other artifacts, within an activity area, component, or phase.
Atlatl - Also: Spear Thrower. A lever arm that is used to aid in throwing a spear, harpoon, or atlatl dart.
Atlatl Dart - A specially made spear used in combination with an atlatl. Resembles a large arrow.
Authentication - Also: Certification. A written assurance that a stone artifact is real and not a reproduction or a forgery. Authentication is often used when there is no provenance for an artifact and the owner wishes to know its value. Methods used in authentication include comparing the attributes of the artifact to what is known about artifacts of that origin, checking to see if modern techniques and/or materials were used to manufacture the artifact, carbon dating of the artifact or associated organic matter, and chemical analysis of the artifact. The value of the authentication varies with the skill and resources of the authenticator.
Axis of Applied Force - Also: Axis of Force, Line of Force, Strike Path, Strike Direction. The direction of the force applied to the core with the intent of causing a fracture. This axis changes, in relation to the viewer, depending on how the core is positioned.
B
BC - Years before Christ or before the beginning of the Christian calendar. The lower case “bc” represents uncalibrated radiocarbon years. There is no year 0: 1 BC is followed by 1 AD.
BCE - Years before the common era or before the Christian era. In the Gregorian
Calendar, eras are designated BCE and CE, and correspond to the abbreviations BC and AD respectively.
BP - Used especially in radiocarbon dating. The fixed reference date for BP has been established as 1950 AD. So, for example, 9000 BP would mean 9000 years before 1950, or 7050 BC. The lower case “bp” represents uncalibrated radiocarbon years.
Backed Blade - Any stone blade that has one dull side. The dull side may be man-made (steep retouch or abrading) or natural (cortex).
Bannerstone - A ground stone artifact that is symmetrical, often wing nut shaped, and drilled in the center. The drilled hole may or may not pass all the way through the artifact. There is considerable debate as to their use but some are believed to be atlatl weights.
Barb - A sharp, acute, backward facing projection. If the projectile point or knife has notches, the barbs occur above the notches. If there are basal notches, or no notches at all, the barbs occur at the corners of the base. If the point has a stem, the notches occur above the stem.
Barbed and Tanged Arrowhead - Triangular flint arrowheads of the later Neolithic and Early Bronze Age in Europe. They have a rectangular tang and deep basal notches.
Base - Also: Basal Area. The portion of a stone tool opposite the stabbing end. If the stone tool is pointed and sharp on both ends, it may not have a base. If the object is a blank, preform, blade, flake, or thin core, the basal area is referred to as the proximal end.
Basal Grinding - The presence of a dulled area on the base caused by abrading. Usually, the abrading or grinding is done to prevent cordage or sinews from severing when the stone tool is hafted. Grinding may also be done to prevent the fingers from being cut while using the stone tool.
Basal Thinning - Flake scars that indicate the intentional thinning of the base. These scars begin at the base and travel toward the tip.
Battered Platform - A platform constructed or enhanced by hammering and crushing the edge of a core.
Battering - Hammering or striking a core’s edge to create a crushed area.
Bending Flake - A flake that follows a pronounced, convex surface and terminates close to the opposite margin. The term has also been used to mean long, narrow, flakes detached with a pressure flaker. It could also mean a flake that has been detached by a bending initiation.
Bending Fracture - Also: Snap Fracture, Fold, Snap Break. A transverse fracture caused by excessive bending stress, or "bowing", placed on a thin core from force applied to the edge. The fracture starts at the area of applied force.
Bending Initiation - A type of flake initiation, sometimes guided by platform isolation, produced by cracks that open away from the point of applied force. The resulting flakes usually have a pronounced lip, contracting lateral margins immediately below the striking platform, and a diffuse bulb of force.
Bending Stress - Force(s) applied to a core that may cause the core to bend, fold, or snap.
Beveled Edge - Also: Bevel, Steep Retouch, Lateral Bevel. A type of edge created by removing short flakes from only one side of a thin core and causing a steep angle. This is accomplished with pressure or percussion.
Beveled Platform - A type of platform created by removing short flakes from one side and in one direction.
Bi-convex - A two-sided core that is convex on both sides.
Bi-directional Core - A core with flakes removed in two different, usually opposite, directions.
Biface - Also Bifacial Core, Bifacial Foliate, Bifacial Blank. A type of thin core that has flake scars on more than 60% of the surface of both sides.
Bifurcated Base - A base on a point that is divided into two parts by a large central depression, concavity, or notch.
Bilateral Symmetry - Symmetry between the two lateral edges or margins of a stone tool when viewed from the face.
Bilaterally Barbed - A projectile point or knife with barbs on both lateral edges or margins. Stone points can also be unilaterally barbed.
Billet - Also: Baton, Bar Hammer, Cylinder Hammer, Soft Hammer. A hand-held, cylindrical, nonmetallic, object or instrument that is used with direct percussion to strike a core to detach flakes or blades.
Binding - Also: Wrapping. A fibrous material or cordage used to fasten a stone tool to the end of a handle or shaft.
Bioturbation - The physical rearrangement of soil by animals and organisms in the soil. This effect is important to consider when trying to establish the original depth and location of stone artifacts.
Bipoint - A finished projectile point or knife that is pointed on both ends.
Birch Bark Tar - Also: Birch Tar. A resin that is obtained from birch bark by using dry distillation (heating under airtight conditions). It has been used widely, until recently, in Europe as a hot-melt adhesive since the late Paleolithic era.
Bird Point - A true arrowhead. In other words, a stone tool that is hafted to the tip of an arrow that is fired from a bow.
Bit - A cylindrical or conical piece of hard material (antler, bone, or ivory) that is either inserted into a hole at the end of a handle or fastened to the side of a handle. Used in pressure flaking or indirect percussion flaking.
Bitumen - Also: Asphalt, Asphaltum. Naturally occurring petroleum tar. Sometimes used as a hafting adhesive in ancient times.
Blade - Also: Blade Flake. A flake with a length to width ratio of 2:1 or more.
Blade Edge Type - The type of margin on a stone tool. The names are the same as in leaf morphology with the following additional types: serrated, abraded, beveled, and backed.
Blade Face - The surface of a blade. A blade has two faces: one is called the ventral side and other the dorsal side.
Blade-like Core - A core that has a length to width ratio of 2:1 or more.
Bladelet - Also: Microblade. A prismatic blade that is truncated on one or both ends and has a width of less than 1” (25mm) and a length less than 2” (50mm). Most bladelets show the original bulb of force.
Blade Removal Reduction Strategy - Also: Blade Removal, Blade Production. The removal of flakes from a core, that have a length to width ratio of 2:1 or more. The core is discarded after the desired length of blades can no longer be removed from the core.
Blank - Also: Trade Blank, Cache Blade. A preform, biface, or workpiece that is either set aside or carried until the owner wishes to finish it or trade it for something else. The act of creating a blank means that there is an intentional pause in the reduction sequence. All edges are knapped and cortex is minimal or not present.
Blattspitze - Also: Blattspitzen. A type of bifacial stone tool with points at one or both ends. They are found in some late Middle and early Upper Paleolithic industries of central and eastern Europe.
Block - Also: Boulder. A stationary, expedient, and unmodified stone on which cores are placed to be broken, split, or fractured.
Block Reduction Strategy - Also: Bi-polar Reduction Strategy, Bi-polar Reduction Technique, Block-on-Block Technique. A direct percussion technique that involves placing the core on a block and then arbitrarily striking the core with a stone or hard percussor to produce flakes or to split the core. Fractures can originate from the point of impact of the percussor, the block, or both. Normally performed on nodules, cobbles, or pebbles. Probably the original and oldest known reduction strategy practiced by flintknappers.
Blunt - Also: Stunner. A point with an intentionally rounded or reworked tip. Some feel that the point may have been used in hunting as a stunning weapon. However, many blunts show signs of being used as scrapers.
Bolas Stone - A stone weight that is part of a weapon called a bola or bolas. Usually made by pecking and grinding, these weights can also be knapped.
Bold Flake Pattern - Also: Bold Flaking. A series of flake scars that are deep, pronounced, or relatively large for the stone tool.
Bone - Being lightweight, yet strong and hard, bone is often used for lithic reduction tools (instruments). In some texts, bone, along with antler, is referred to as osseous tissue.
Bone Structure - The natural shape of bones from various animals. Bone structure is important to consider when analyzing artifacts made from bone. For example, sometimes a bone artifact will have features, like holes, channels, or surface depressions, that may look man-made but are natural.
Bopper - Also: Hard Hammer. A metallic billet.
Brittle Fracture - There are two types of fractures in knappable materials caused by stress: tensile fracture and shear fracture. In a tensile fracture, the material opens along a crack due to tensile failure. In a shear fracture, the material slides and/or tears along a crack due to shear failure. Both types of fracture or failure are present when a flake is detached. The way the stresses combine and travel into the material determines the shape of the fracture plane(s) and the characteristics of the flakes and scars.
Bulb of Applied Force - Also: Bulb of Force. A raised or convex area, near the platform remnant on a flake, that is the surface of a conchoidal-type crack caused by forces applied during flake removal from a brittle material. Bulbs of force may be pronounced, moderate, or diffuse.
Bulb of Percussion - A bulb of force caused by percussion flaking.
Bulb of Pressure - A bulb of force caused by pressure flaking.
Bulbar Scar - Also: Reverse Bulb of Force. The depression on the face of a core corresponding to the raised area of the removed flake’s bulb of force.
Bulbar Surface - Also: Ventral Surface. The surface of an unmodified flake that contains the bulb of force.
Bulbos Base - A type of basal stem on a stone tool that is rounded and bulb-like.
Burin - Also Burin Tool. A stone engraving tool that has an acute, durable, chisel-like area on one end. It may be used as-is or may be hafted to a handle to form a composite tool. Burins usually begin as unmodified blades, flakes, or fragments. Burins can also be created from bifaces or unifaces. The chisel portion is made by striking off two flakes perpendicular to the face of the tool. This process produces characteristic scars (burin scars).
Burin Blade - Also: Burin Spall. A proportionately thick flake (high thickness to width ratio) that is struck off from a burin when the chisel portion is being made.
C
Cache - A group of stone artifacts intentionally buried or stored, and subsequently found, together.
Calcite - A mineral that is found in limestone and other sedimentary rocks. Calcite forms mineral coatings that cement rock grains together, like silica crystals in flint or chert, or it can fill fractures.
Cast - A resin (plastic) copy made of an artifact produced from a mold created from the original.
Centerline - The longitudinal axis of a thin core when looking at the edge.
Centripetal Reduction Strategy - The removal of flakes from a core using steep platform angles and a hard hammer to produce a non-cortical biface with the least number of flake removals possible.
Chalcedony - A cryptocrystalline form of silica, composed of very fine intergrowths of the minerals quartz and moganite.
Channel Scar - Also: Flute, Flute Scar, Trough. The scar of a channel flake or flute flake.
Chatter - When a percussor or pressure flaker makes contact with the platform more than once during flake removal. In other words, the tool bounces on the platform. Chatter can lead to hinge or step terminations and broken flakes.
Chert - A fine-grained, silica-rich, microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline, or microfibrous sedimentary rock that is used as a raw material for the manufacture of stone tools. Where formed within chalk or marl it is usually of higher quality and called flint.
Chevron Flake Pattern - Also: Double Diagonal Flake Pattern. A flake scar pattern where diagonal (oblique) scars meet in the middle and form a “V” on a stone tool.
Chip - An obsolete term meaning flake.
Chipped Stone Tool - An obsolete term meaning flintknapped or flaked stone tool.
Chopper - A stone tool with an irregular cutting edge formed through the removal of flakes from both sides of one edge of a relatively flat stone.
Cleaving - A type of brittle fracture that cracks or splits a crystal along planar weaknesses of the chemical bonds of its structure. Since a cleavage plane is reflective, this is believed to be the reason that a heat treated material displays a shinier fractured surface than before it was heat treated. Heat treating is assumed to cause a strengthening of the mechanical bonds between crystals which allows the crystals to be cleaved along the path of fracture instead of being separated along the mechanical bonds.
Clovis Culture - The material culture of the people who used Clovis points and associated stone tools.
Clovis Point - A very widely used stone tool in the Americas during the Pale-Indian period. It is distinguished by the use of flutes to thin the basal area.
Clovis Technology - The lithic reduction tools and techniques used in the manufacture of Clovis points, blades, scrapers, and other associated stone tools in the Clovis complex. Also includes the methods of using the stone tools after they are made.
Cluster - An assemblage, belonging to an archaeological culture, that regularly appear together in two or more sites within a phase.
Cobble - Also: Pebble. A rounded, river-tumbled nodule of knappable material.
Collateral Flake Pattern - Also: Collateral Flaking. A series of flake scars that run at roughly 90° to the centerline, from each side, and meeting somewhere in the middle.
Collector - A private person who collects artifacts. Most collectors spend many hours searching private lands and find artifacts through surface collecting, diving, and/or digging.
Complex - An assemblage, belonging to a material culture, that regularly appears together in two or more sites within a phase (or horizon). Also, this can be a tool technology that originates from, and remains within, one social culture.
Component - A group of similar and contemporary activity areas.
Composite Tool - Generally, any two-part hand tool made up of a handle and a flaked or ground stone tool that is securely fastened to the end of the handle. In lithic reduction: A two-part instrument made up of a handle and a piece of hard material (bit) that is either inserted into a hole or slot at the end of the handle or fastened to the side. The hard material makes contact with the core when flakes are detached. This instrument can be used for either pressure flaking or percussion flaking.
Composite Weapon - A weapon made up of two or more distinct parts, especially one that contains a stone tool or point.
Compression Fracture - A very specific type of transverse fracture caused by excessive bending stress, or "bowing", placed on a thin core from force applied to the base and/or tip. The fracture starts some distance away from the area of applied force. A hinge-like scar can usually be seen on one side of the break.
Compression Rings - The ripples on the surface of a flake or flake scar.
Compressor - A pressure flaking tool.
Concave - Curving inward.
Concentration of Applied Force - The applied force can be concentrated by sharpening the tip of a lithic reduction tool, decreasing the surface area of a platform, and/or increasing the hardness of the tool. This has the effect of increasing the applied force on the surface of the platform in the area of contact. In other words, concentration of force leads to easier detachment of flakes, without increased effort. Also, relatively small platforms can be utilized without loss of flake size.
Conchoidal Fracture - A type of brittle fracture that produces a flake, or scar, that resembles a mussel shell. Conchoidal fractures occur when a brittle material is struck with enough force, in a small enough area, to initiate a curved or cone-like fracture that spreads into the material, and produces the characteristic shape. As the fracture expands, however, the shape of the fracture plane changes according to the shape of the material, the consistency of the material, the force and direction of the strike, and the stresses acting on the material, such as tensile and shear stresses.
Concrete - A term used by modern flintknappers to indicate an area within a core that is very tough, difficult to fracture, and resembles concrete.
Concretion - A hard, compact mass of sedimentary rock that is formed from mineral precipitation around some kind of nucleus. The unusual shapes of concretions can sometimes can be confused with fossils or artifacts.
Cone of Force - Also: Hertzian Cone. A cone-like crack that propagates through a brittle material at the point of applied force. Not to be confused with the bulb of force.
Cone Shear - Also: Sheared Cone, Split Cone. The intentional fracture that splits a rounded nodule, pebble, or cobble in half (or nearly in half).
Conical Core - A thick core that is cone-shaped.
Contracted Base - When looking at the face, this is a basal area that is more narrow than the rest of a stone tool.
Context - The physical location of artifacts when initially discovered.
Continuous Platform - A single, long platform, or a series of small platforms spaced close together, prepared on at least 60% of a core’s edge or margin.
Convex - Curving outward.
Copper - A metal used, and often preferred, for modern flintknapping tools and techniques.
Copper Bopper - A billet made of copper or one that has a copper tip.
Copperhead - Someone who uses copper tools when flintknapping.
Cordage - String made from strong, fibrous, natural, material that is twisted tightly together. A high-quality twine.
Core - Also: Lithic Core, Objective Piece, Workpiece. A piece of brittle stone that is intentionally fractured, by using lithic reduction techniques or strategies, to obtain or release flakes, blades, or other sharp pieces.
Core Tablet Flake - Also: Tablet Flake, Tabular Flake, Platform Rejuvenation Tablet. A distinctive polyhedral, flat flake that is detached from the top of a conical core so that more flakes can be struck from the new surface. The core tablet flake is detached with one strike and removes the entire top of the core.
Core Tool - A very simple cutting tool. These stone tools have relatively few flakes scars and still have cortex remaining somewhere on the tool.
Cortex - Also: Rind. The natural or weathered surface of a cobble, pebble or nodule of stone. Also applies to the entire layer of softer or unusable material surrounding the knappable material within the nodule. Sometimes this layer can be very thick. Not to be confused with the term *patina*, which is a relatively thin layer that forms on the exposed surface of fractured stone.
Cortex Removal - The act of removing the original surface of the nodule by intentional fracturing. This is usually the first stage of the preparation of any type of core.
Cortical - Possessing some of the cortex of the original cobble, pebble, or nodule of stone. This applies mainly to flakes, fragments, blades, and thin cores.
Crater - Also: Fire Pop, Pot Lid, Pot Lid Fracture, Heat Pop. A fracture scar on the surface of a stone that is caused by sudden and drastic heat change. The fracture resembles a crater or depression with a corresponding detached round flake or lid.
Crazing - Damage caused by heat treating or thermal alteration in the form of small cracks throughout the material. This renders the stone useless for most lithic reduction. Can also mean fractures, on the surface of a stone, due to exposure to the elements.
Crested Blade - Also: Prismatic Blade. A blade with one or two arrises running down the length of the dorsal side of the blade.
Crushing - The production of many, shallow cracks in a small area that releases numerous small fragments; resulting in an irregular or rough surface. Crushing can occur just before and/or just after flake removal when a percussor or pressure flaker makes contact with the platform. It is similar to what happens during edge shearing. When it happens before a flake’s removal it’s called pre-crushing and when it happens after it’s called after-crushing. Pre-crushing causes energy loss and may damage or ruin the platform. After-crushing can lead to eraillure flakes, transverse fractures, and damage to the core’s edge.
Cross Section - The cross sections of stone tools may take on many forms such as: flattened, ovoid, ovate, plano-convex, bi-convex, rhomboid, rounded, diamond-shaped, spiral, fluted, and lenticular. The cross section is an important diagnostic feature of many point styles but is sometimes missing in archaeological data.
Crutch - A type of pressure flaker that uses the weight of the flintknapper’s body to aid in detaching flakes or blades.
Cryptocrystalline - A rock texture that is made up of extremely small crystals. This type of material is often knappable.
Crystallites - Also: Grains. Very small or microscopic crystals.
Curved Flake - A flake, with a diffuse bulb of force, that is convex on one side and concave on the other when viewed from the side or margin.
D
Debitage - Also: Waste Flakes, Lithic Debitage. The combined mass of unused flakes, fragments, and broken or discarded cores resulting from the process of lithic reduction. Waste from the process of lithic reduction.
Debitage Analysis - The careful analysis of the waste from the lithic reduction process. The main goals of debitage analysis are to try to determine how stone tools were made, what they were used for, and what material(s) were used to make the lithic reduction tools.
Debris - Also: Dentritus. Stone material, found in context with flintknapped objects, that cannot be classified as artifacts or debitage.
Decortication Flakes - Flakes that are detached with the intention of removing the outer surface or cortex of a core or nodule. Not to be confused with skinning flakes.
Denticulate - Also Denticulation. A stone blade that has fine serrations on its edges.
Delta - Also: Peak. The portion of a ridge or arris that meets the edge of a core. These raised areas are detached, with pressure or percussion, if a smooth or straight edge is desired.
Device - Also: Jig. A machine that provides a greater applied force that can be applied by human hands alone. Most devices involve the use of a lever arm for applying indirect pressure. The use of devices in ancient times is a matter of debate. Some devices in current use are: crutches, fluting jigs, and pressure flaking jigs.
Diagonal Flake Pattern - Also: Diagonal Flaking, Oblique Flake Pattern, Oblique Flaking. A series of flake scars that run at roughly 30° to 45° to the centerline, from each side, and meeting somewhere in the middle. This may or may not create a median ridge on a stone tool.
Diffuse Bulb - A bulb of force that is either very small or relatively flat.
Direct Freehand Percussion - Performing direct percussion while holding, and suspending, the core in the hand.
Direct Percussion - Striking the core with an object (percussor) to cause a fracture or to detach a flake.
Direct Supported Percussion - Performing direct percussion while using leg support, or some other support, for the hand that is holding the core.
Distal - On a flake or blade: the end opposite to the platform and/or bulb of force. On a conical core: the end opposite the area where force is applied to remove flakes. On a stone tool: the tip or stabbing end.
Dogleg - A collector or flintknapper term used to describe any part of a stone tool that contains a sharp bend, reminiscent of the hind leg of a dog, when viewing the face of the tool. It is an unusual feature. Some stems, tangs, or ears may appear bent or sharply curved, for example.
Dome & Plane Reduction Strategy - The removal of flakes from a thin core by first creating a smooth, convex face (dome) and then removing a wide flute from one end of the core to create a flat surface (plane). The flute usually travels the full length of the core. This process may or may not be employed on both faces but the goal is always to produce a very thin and flat cross section.
Dorsal - The side of a newly detached and unmodified flake that either shows ridges and scars from previous flake removal(s) or cortex from the original stone. As flakes are increasingly removed from both sides it becomes increasingly difficult to tell which side is dorsal and, eventually, the designation is no longer needed or useful.
Dorsal Ridge - Also: Keel. A pronounced ridge (arris) on the dorsal side of a flake that runs the entire length of the flake.
Drill - Also: Borer. A stone tool with a long point used to create a hole by rotating or twisting the tool along its longitudinal axis while applying pressure towards the tip. Some flintknapped stone tools, that are classified as drills, may have been used as knives or awls. Use-wear analysis on the artifact is usually necessary to determine the exact use.
Driving Force - The force directly following the applied force which causes a crack to propagate and travel into and/or though the core.
E
Ear - A pointed, squared, or rounded projection from the corners of the base or hafting area, of a projectile point or knife, that is not classified as a barb.
Edge - Also: Margin. On a core: the portion of a core where force is applied to remove flakes or blades. On a stone tool: The working portion of the tool that will be used for cutting, scraping, sawing, slashing, drilling, or chopping.
Edge-to-Edge Flake Pattern - Also: Edge-to-Edge Flaking, Coast-to-Coast Flake Pattern, Coast-to-Coast Flaking, Full-length Flaking. Flake scars that extend from one margin to the opposite margin of a stone tool.
Edge Use-wear - Polish, abrasions, and/or fractures on a stone tool’s edge that show that the tool was used for some repetitive operation such as cutting, scraping, sawing, slashing, drilling, or chopping.
Elasticity - A property of a material indicating its ability to return to its original shape after being deformed. The material will begin to deform after it has reached its elastic limit. Brittle materials do not deform significantly and will fracture at the elastic limit.
Elastic Limit - The maximum deformation, usually displayed on a force-deflection graph, that a material can withstand before it will no longer go back to its original shape. Brittle material will break at this limit.
End Scraper - A stone tool that has been made from the distal end of a flake. Not all of these tools show use-wear evidence of being used as scrapers but this does not affect the use of the term. The working edge is steeply retouched and the ventral side is concave leading up to the sharp edge of the tool.
End Shock - Also: End Snap. A type of transverse fracture. This is a manufacturing error caused by excessive and sudden movement or vibration of a thin core during percussion or pressure flaking on one end of the core. The fracture occurs between the middle of the core and the end opposite the percussion or pressure work.
Excessive Force - Also: Excessive Applied Force. An amount of force that is much greater than the force required to cause the fracturing of a core. Can be used with any reduction technique to guarantee a fracture but also increases the chance of a manufacturing error.
Exhausted - Also: Expended. When a stone tool or core can no longer be used for its intended purpose due to use and not due to breakage.
Expedient Tool - An unworked flake or fragment used in the same capacity as, or a substitute for, a flaked projectile point, drill, knife, or other cutting tool.
Eraillure Flake - A secondary flake detached from the main flake's bulb of force.
Experimental Archaeology - Also: Replication. In flintknapping, the attempt to recreate ancient techniques to produce stone tools, cores, flakes, debitage, and any other modified stone material that existed in the same context.
Expert Flintknapper - Someone who can explain, teach, and perform a wide range of known flintknapping techniques, with a high degree of skill, and produce predetermined shapes in an efficient, consistent, and predictable manner.
F
Fabric - A rock’s spatial and geometric configuration of all the elements within it.
Fabricator - A tool used to remove flakes from a core such as a percussor, crutch, lever, or pressure flaker.
Face - The surface of a thin core, flake, or fragment.
Facet - A relatively flat area on a core or platform. Usually, this area is a flake scar but it can also be some other type of fracture plane.
Faceted Platform - A platform that is not level, smooth, or flat. Faceted platforms contain two or more surface areas that are at different angles to each other and may also contain irregularities like step fractures.
Fatigue - A weakening of a material due to repeated stress.
Feather Termination - Also: Feathering. A gradual tapering of a flake’s distal end that results in very thin, sharp edge. This term also applies to a flake scar that shows a smooth transition, on the surface of a core, at the end of a flake’s path.
Field Grade Artifacts - Stone tools or other objects found at a site that are not of the highest quality, state of preservation, workmanship, and/or value for the type.
Field Research - Also: Fieldwork. The collection of information at an archaeological site or other location outside of a laboratory.
Field Stone - A stone that occurs naturally on the surface of a field or other open area.
Final Pass - The last series of thinning flakes that is detached from a preform. This series is often very skillfully performed and can be a diagnostic feature of the stone tool. The core is usually carefully prepared in anticipation of this final sequence of flakes.
First Stage - The non-retouched state of a finished tool.
Fissures - Also: Impact Scars, Hackles. Narrow, crack-like channels on the ventral side of a flake that radiate out from the point of impact. Most often seen on flakes detached with hard hammer percussion techniques.
Fake - Also: Fake Artifact. A reproduction made with the intent to fool onlookers, experts, and/or buyers into believing the item is a true stone artifact.
Flake - Also: Lithic Flake, Scalar Flake, Chip, Lamellar Chip, Spall, Detached Piece. A relatively flat piece of stone detached from another stone by intentional and controlled fracturing. A flake contains the following parts: a platform remnant, a bulb of force, and a termination. The portion that contains the platform remnant and bulb of force is called the proximal end. The portion that contains the termination is called the distal end. The portion between the proximal and distal ends is called the medial portion. A flake that does not contain all three of these parts is called a fragment. Fragments are broken pieces of stone that cannot be classified as flakes. Fragments can be classified according to the part(s) of a flake they came from: proximal, medial, distal, or indistinct. Flakes and fragments that are discarded are called debitage. Indistinct fragments are grouped under the debris classification.
Flake Initiation - The beginning of a fracture that leads to the creation of a flake. This fracture is caused by force(s) applied to the a core by a lithic reduction tool and is influenced by platform isolation, brittleness of the material, and the condition of the platform surface.
Flake Pattern - Also: Flake Scar Pattern. The overall look of the flaked surface of a stone tool. The pattern names are: bold, chevron, coast-to-coast, collateral, diagonal, edge-to-edge, oblique, offset, overshot, parallel, random, transverse, wide, and Z-flake. Pattern names can be combined to fit the situation.
Flake Production - Detaching flakes with a single technique with the intent of producing a number of flakes with similar dimensions.
Flake Scar - The impression on the surface of a core or other flintknapped object that results from the removal of a flake.
Flake Scar Study - A type of tool surface analysis that focusses on the characteristics of flake scars (sometimes called "signatures") to determine the tool(s) and or method(s) of flake removal.
Flaker - A tool used to detach flakes from a core that is not a hammerstone, billet, or bopper. Flakers can be of two types: pressure or percussion.
Flake Study - A type of debitage analysis that focusses on the characteristics of certain detached pieces of stone that have a platform remnant and a bulb of force (flakes).
Flake Tool - A stone tool made from a specially made or chosen flake or fragment that shows little or no retouch before or after use. Identified mainly through evidence of use-wear. Not to be confused with an expedient tool.
Flake Type - A name given to a flake based on a unique attribute(s). The attribute(s) may or may not be the result of a certain reduction technique or strategy.
Flaking - Also: Spalling, Chipping, Lamellar Chipping. The act of detaching pieces of stone from another stone using a lithic reduction tool. Spalling implies the removal of relatively large pieces from a large, thick core.
Flat Flaking - The intentional and skillful removal of flakes with diffuse bulbs of force.
Flexibility - The amount of bending an object can withstand before breaking. Usually expressed as measure of deflection or flex.
Flint - A variety of chert that is formed within chalk or limestone formations. It can also be classified as a very fine-grained quartz. It occurs chiefly as nodules in sedimentary rocks, cobbles in stream or river beds, and as angular chunks eroded from exposed outcroppings. Flint is arguably the best material for stone tools.
Flintknapping - The intentional and controlled flaking or fracturing of flint, volcanic glass, chert, or any other similar material resulting in the production of sharp pieces that can be used as stone tools. Also applies to stone objects created purely for artistic or ceremonial reasons. Implies a recreational or modern professional approach to lithic reduction technology.
Fragment - Also: Flake Fragment, Blade Fragment. Fragments are broken pieces of stone that have been detached from a core but cannot be classified as flakes. Fragments are classified according to the part of the flake they came from: proximal, medial, distal, or indistinct. Fragments that are discarded are called debitage. Indistinct fragments are grouped under the debris classification.
Flute - Also: Channel. A very distinctive, pronounced, basal thinning flake scar. Sometimes this flake scar runs the entire length of a core or stone tool. Flutes are one of the main features on Paleo-Indian Clovis, Folsom, and Cumberland points (among others). Smaller or less pronounced flutes may also occur on later points. On rare occasions, points may be fluted from the tip as well as the base.
Flute Flake - Also: Channel Flake. The flake that is detached when a flute is created. Some flute flakes show evidence of use-wear.
Fluting Jig - A device that provides the applied force during the removal of a channel flake. The jig may deliver the force by pressure or percussion.
Foliate - This can mean either that a stone object looks like a leaf or that the stone has a layered structure.
Force - Energy that causes an object to undergo a certain change. Force has both magnitude and direction.
Four Sided Bevel - A stone tool that has both edges steeply retouched on both sides.
Fracture - The separation of a material into two or more pieces under the action of stress. Crack initiation and propagation are part of the fracturing process and must be guided when trying to control fractures during lithic reduction. The cracks that propagate in a brittle material will continue to grow and increase in magnitude, once they are initiated, and cracks can either pass through the grains within the material or along the grain boundaries.
Fracture Mechanics - Also: Mechanics of Fracture. The study of how cracks propagate through materials.
Fracture Plane - Also: Fracture Wave. The surface created by a crack in a brittle material. When this surface is exposed, it is often wavy and contains recognizable features like the bulb of force, for example.
Freehand - Lithic reduction done while holding, and suspending, the core in one hand.
Freehand Percussion - Performing direct percussion while holding, and suspending, the core in one hand.
Furrow - A depression in the material of a finished workpiece that is shaped like a "V". When seen on a base, the furrow gives the base or stem a "fishtail" appearance. When seen on a cross section or face, the furrow appears to be a meeting of stepped or hinged flake scars initiated from one or both sides.
